{"id":88,"date":"2019-07-15T21:12:37","date_gmt":"2019-07-15T21:12:37","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/?post_type=chapter&p=88"},"modified":"2019-08-07T19:04:17","modified_gmt":"2019-08-07T19:04:17","slug":"deadly-lake-nyos-in-cameroon","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/chapter\/deadly-lake-nyos-in-cameroon\/","title":{"rendered":"Deadly Lake Nyos in Cameroon"},"content":{"raw":"

When you pop the top on a can of Coke, dissolved CO2<\/sub> comes bubbling out. Take another can of Coke scuba diving with you, and the farther down you dive, the less the Coke will fizz when opened. (Drinking it without getting salt water in your mouth is another challenge.) Likewise, if you leave it sitting out, it loses its fizz as most of the CO2<\/sub> gradually bubbles off\u2014it equilibrates with atmospheric pressure. Lakes and streams naturally contain small amounts of CO2<\/sub>, but you don\u2019t see them fizz because they are also equilibrated. However, under very rare conditions, such as occur at Lake Nyos in Cameroon1, a sudden bubbling up of CO2<\/sub> can occur. In 1986, a massive release of CO2<\/sub> created a 250-foot-high geyser in the lake. The cloud of CO2<\/sub> released killed 1,700 people.<\/p>\r\n

Lake Nyos, nearly 700 feet deep, is located in a volcanic crater. Volcanic activity deep below the crater releases CO2<\/sub>, which rises through fractures to where it encounters ground water. There, much of it dissolves into the ground water. The ground water in turn flows into the bottom of Lake Nyos. In most lakes, there is fairly regular turnover in water, with winds and currents bringing bottom water toward the surface and taking surface water downward. However, in Lake Nyos, the bottom water is stagnant. The CO2<\/sub> continues to flow in with the ground water, but stays dissolved because of the pressure in the deep lake. Essentially, a bottom layer forms, rich in CO2<\/sub>, ready like a Coke can to have its top popped.<\/p>\r\n

It is unclear what set off the CO2<\/sub> eruption in 1986. Perhaps wind stirred the lake more than usual. Perhaps a landslide. Regardless, something caused some of the cold, CO2<\/sub>-saturated water to move upwards. When it did, CO2<\/sub> began to bubble out of solution. As the bubbles formed, they rose toward the surface, pulling with them more cold water. As this additional water rose, more CO2<\/sub> bubbles formed and rose. And so on. What resulted was a huge, rapid upwelling of bottom water, and a massive amount of CO2<\/sub> was released suddenly.<\/p>\r\n

CO2<\/sub> is about 50% heavier than our everyday mixture of air. And this CO2<\/sub> was cold, too. As it erupted from the lake, it stayed low to the ground, moving as fast as 45 m.p.h., flowing in a cloud for more than 10 miles. It was a suffocating cloud, killing nearly every animal in its path. A day later, it still lurked in low spots, still capable of killing a small girl who descended into a ravine. The area was subsequently evacuated. However, people have returned, attracted by the rich, volcanic soils, and tilapia, thriving fish introduced into the lake.<\/p>\r\n

The buildup of CO2<\/sub> in the lake is once again extremely dangerous, according to the US Geological Survey. Pilot studies have shown that the lake can be easily degassed, perhaps for a little as $1 million, very little as these sorts of things go. Sticking several pipes into the depths of the lake, starting an upward movement of the water with a pump, and then letting the resulting bubbling lift the water, has been shown to work in slowly releasing the CO2<\/sub>. Though politics has slowed the development of a full-scale project, a variety of recent events has helped push the degassing project back on track. Until the degassing is completed, Lake Nyos is prepared to kill again.<\/p>\r\n

Notes on Extrusive and Intrusive Rocks:<\/b><\/p>\r\n

Igneous rocks that form from lava that is spit out upon the land surface or underwater are extrusive<\/i>\u2014they have been extruded. Rocks that form from the colling of magma ( melted rock) on the inside of the Earth are intrusive<\/i>. Just as flour, sugar, egg, and milk can make a cupcake or a pancake, depending on how they are cooked, the same rock ingredients ccan lead to different rocks, depending on how they are formed. Intrusive <\/i> versus extrusive <\/i> is one of the key differences.<\/p>\r\n

Because extrusive rocks cool much more quickly, crystals have little time to grow. Geologists say that they have a fine-grained<\/i> texture<\/i>. In contrast, intrusive rocks cool slowly, growing larger crystals. We\u2019ve already discussed the differences between mafic and felsic minerals. When we add that difference in composition to the textural differences, we get the following six rocks:<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
<\/td>\r\nfelsic<\/strong><\/td>\r\nintermediate<\/strong><\/td>\r\nmafic<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
intrusive<\/strong><\/td>\r\ngranite<\/td>\r\ndiorite<\/td>\r\ngabbro<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
extrusive<\/strong><\/td>\r\nrhyolite<\/td>\r\nandesite<\/td>\r\nbasalt<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

The composition of lava has a big influence on the type of volcano that forms:<\/p>\r\n

Shield volcanoes <\/b>are the largest, by far. Think of the Hawaiian volcanoes as examples. These from from mafic lava.<\/p>\r\n

Composite cones (or stratovolcanoes) <\/b>form at subduction zones. Think of a layer cake, like Mt.St. Helens These are intermediate in composition.<\/p>\r\n

Calderas <\/b>are large depressions that form after the ejection of lots of lava. They can form on any volcano, but the most famous caldera is Yellowstone. The felsic lava there is so thick that it doesn\u2019t flow\u2014it explodes violently and then leave a whopping-big hole in the ground, one that encloses much of Yellowstone National Park.<\/p>\r\n

Most volcanoes occur at one of three locations:<\/p>\r\n

Spreading centers <\/b>emit lots of lava, mostly mafic and not explosive. These are fissure eruptions<\/i>, along long cracks in the Earth.<\/p>\r\n

Subduction zones <\/b>emit the most volcanic and earthquake energy, like the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean.<\/p>\r\n

Mantle hotspots <\/b>bring magma from deep in the Earth to the surface at places like Hawaii and Yellowstone. In Hawaii, the melting ocean plate is mafic, so the erup[tions are mostly runny (low viscosity)] while the felsic continental plate beneath Yellowstone melts into thick, explosive magma.<\/p>","rendered":"

When you pop the top on a can of Coke, dissolved CO2<\/sub> comes bubbling out. Take another can of Coke scuba diving with you, and the farther down you dive, the less the Coke will fizz when opened. (Drinking it without getting salt water in your mouth is another challenge.) Likewise, if you leave it sitting out, it loses its fizz as most of the CO2<\/sub> gradually bubbles off\u2014it equilibrates with atmospheric pressure. Lakes and streams naturally contain small amounts of CO2<\/sub>, but you don\u2019t see them fizz because they are also equilibrated. However, under very rare conditions, such as occur at Lake Nyos in Cameroon1, a sudden bubbling up of CO2<\/sub> can occur. In 1986, a massive release of CO2<\/sub> created a 250-foot-high geyser in the lake. The cloud of CO2<\/sub> released killed 1,700 people.<\/p>\n

Lake Nyos, nearly 700 feet deep, is located in a volcanic crater. Volcanic activity deep below the crater releases CO2<\/sub>, which rises through fractures to where it encounters ground water. There, much of it dissolves into the ground water. The ground water in turn flows into the bottom of Lake Nyos. In most lakes, there is fairly regular turnover in water, with winds and currents bringing bottom water toward the surface and taking surface water downward. However, in Lake Nyos, the bottom water is stagnant. The CO2<\/sub> continues to flow in with the ground water, but stays dissolved because of the pressure in the deep lake. Essentially, a bottom layer forms, rich in CO2<\/sub>, ready like a Coke can to have its top popped.<\/p>\n

It is unclear what set off the CO2<\/sub> eruption in 1986. Perhaps wind stirred the lake more than usual. Perhaps a landslide. Regardless, something caused some of the cold, CO2<\/sub>-saturated water to move upwards. When it did, CO2<\/sub> began to bubble out of solution. As the bubbles formed, they rose toward the surface, pulling with them more cold water. As this additional water rose, more CO2<\/sub> bubbles formed and rose. And so on. What resulted was a huge, rapid upwelling of bottom water, and a massive amount of CO2<\/sub> was released suddenly.<\/p>\n

CO2<\/sub> is about 50% heavier than our everyday mixture of air. And this CO2<\/sub> was cold, too. As it erupted from the lake, it stayed low to the ground, moving as fast as 45 m.p.h., flowing in a cloud for more than 10 miles. It was a suffocating cloud, killing nearly every animal in its path. A day later, it still lurked in low spots, still capable of killing a small girl who descended into a ravine. The area was subsequently evacuated. However, people have returned, attracted by the rich, volcanic soils, and tilapia, thriving fish introduced into the lake.<\/p>\n

The buildup of CO2<\/sub> in the lake is once again extremely dangerous, according to the US Geological Survey. Pilot studies have shown that the lake can be easily degassed, perhaps for a little as $1 million, very little as these sorts of things go. Sticking several pipes into the depths of the lake, starting an upward movement of the water with a pump, and then letting the resulting bubbling lift the water, has been shown to work in slowly releasing the CO2<\/sub>. Though politics has slowed the development of a full-scale project, a variety of recent events has helped push the degassing project back on track. Until the degassing is completed, Lake Nyos is prepared to kill again.<\/p>\n

Notes on Extrusive and Intrusive Rocks:<\/b><\/p>\n

Igneous rocks that form from lava that is spit out upon the land surface or underwater are extrusive<\/i>\u2014they have been extruded. Rocks that form from the colling of magma ( melted rock) on the inside of the Earth are intrusive<\/i>. Just as flour, sugar, egg, and milk can make a cupcake or a pancake, depending on how they are cooked, the same rock ingredients ccan lead to different rocks, depending on how they are formed. Intrusive <\/i> versus extrusive <\/i> is one of the key differences.<\/p>\n

Because extrusive rocks cool much more quickly, crystals have little time to grow. Geologists say that they have a fine-grained<\/i> texture<\/i>. In contrast, intrusive rocks cool slowly, growing larger crystals. We\u2019ve already discussed the differences between mafic and felsic minerals. When we add that difference in composition to the textural differences, we get the following six rocks:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
<\/td>\nfelsic<\/strong><\/td>\nintermediate<\/strong><\/td>\nmafic<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
intrusive<\/strong><\/td>\ngranite<\/td>\ndiorite<\/td>\ngabbro<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
extrusive<\/strong><\/td>\nrhyolite<\/td>\nandesite<\/td>\nbasalt<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

The composition of lava has a big influence on the type of volcano that forms:<\/p>\n

Shield volcanoes <\/b>are the largest, by far. Think of the Hawaiian volcanoes as examples. These from from mafic lava.<\/p>\n

Composite cones (or stratovolcanoes) <\/b>form at subduction zones. Think of a layer cake, like Mt.St. Helens These are intermediate in composition.<\/p>\n

Calderas <\/b>are large depressions that form after the ejection of lots of lava. They can form on any volcano, but the most famous caldera is Yellowstone. The felsic lava there is so thick that it doesn\u2019t flow\u2014it explodes violently and then leave a whopping-big hole in the ground, one that encloses much of Yellowstone National Park.<\/p>\n

Most volcanoes occur at one of three locations:<\/p>\n

Spreading centers <\/b>emit lots of lava, mostly mafic and not explosive. These are fissure eruptions<\/i>, along long cracks in the Earth.<\/p>\n

Subduction zones <\/b>emit the most volcanic and earthquake energy, like the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean.<\/p>\n

Mantle hotspots <\/b>bring magma from deep in the Earth to the surface at places like Hawaii and Yellowstone. In Hawaii, the melting ocean plate is mafic, so the erup[tions are mostly runny (low viscosity)] while the felsic continental plate beneath Yellowstone melts into thick, explosive magma.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":84,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/88"}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/88\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":188,"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/88\/revisions\/188"}],"part":[{"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/84"}],"metadata":[{"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/88\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=88"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=88"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=88"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/pressbooks.dbq.edu\/storyoftheearth\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=88"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}